Rabu, 21 Maret 2012

Drama Persahabatan

Diposting oleh Unknown di 00.51 0 komentar
Drama
Arti sebuah sahabat
Pemeran:
·         Athira    : sombong, kaya, matrealistis dan memilih-milih teman
·         Nona     : baik, kaya, dan tidak memilih-milih teman
·         Hartik    : baik, kaya, dan tidak memilih-milih teman
·         Alam      : baik, kaya, dan tidak memilih-milih teman
·         Auliya    : baik, kaya, dan tidak memilih-milih teman
·         Wadia   : baik, miskin, dan penyabar
Disuatu sekolah yaitu SMPN 2 Maros terdapat persahabatan yang sudah terjalin selama 2 tahun yang para anggotanya terdiri dari Athira, Nona, Hartik, Alam, dan Auliya yang diberi nama Athira cs. (crew  system). Suatu hari mereka berkumpul bersama dalam kelas untuk membersihkan bersama dan tiba-tiba Wadia menghampiri Athira cs. Yang asik ngobrol bersama-sama.
Wadia   : “Athira, dapatkah saya berbicara dengan mu?”
Athira    : “iya, silahkan !”
Wadia   : “begini, aku berniat ingin bergabung bersama dengan grupmu thira! Apakah kamu tidak keberatan?”
Athira    : “ya jelas keberatanlah ! kami tuh grup yang hanya ingin menerima sahabat yang kaya-kaya bukan seperti kamu yang miskin dan ayahnya tukang becak, bukan begitu teman-teman?”
Nona     : “jangan begitu thira, kami setuju kok kalau wadia gabung dengan grup kita !”
Auliya    : “iya thira kamu jangan begitu bukankah sahabat itu tidak harus memandang harta ?”
Athira    : “kalian diam ajah deh! Aku kan ketua digrup ini jadi kalian jangan ikut campur!”
Alam      : “jadi, kamu tuh hanya memilih kami semua jadi sahabatmu karena kami semua itu anak orang      kaya?
Athira    : ”ya iyalah, aku tuh hanya ingin bersahabat dengan orang yang kaya saja bukan seperti wadia si ank kumuh ini!”
Hartik    : “ternyata kamu tuh hanya memanfaatkan kami semua? Dasar cewek matrealistis kamu thira!”
Athira    : “terserah apa yang kalian bilang terhadapku yang penting kalian selama ini mau ajah saya manfaatin hahaha !
Wadia   : “ ya sudahlah kalau kamu tidak mau menerima aku sebagai sahabatmu thira dan terima kasih ya teman kalian sudah membelaku ! (Wadia pun pergi meninggalkan mereka semua)
Hartik    : “dan satu lagi thira kami semua tidak akan berteman denganmu lagi, bagaimana teman-teman?”
Nona, Alam, Auliya : “ iya betul sekali !”
Athira    : “ya sudah kalau kalian tidak mau lagi berteman dengan saya, itu tidak menjadi masalah bagiku!” (athira pergi meninggalkan mereka semua)
Keesokan harinya mereka berempat kecuali athira berbincang-bincamg di halaman sekolah dan tiba-tiba wadia pun tidak sengaja lewat di depan mereka.
Hartik    : “Wadia, kamu mau kemana?”
Wadia   : “iya, saya mau ke perpustakaan, ada apa memanggil saya Hartik?”(sambil memegang beberap buku di tangannya)
Hartik    : “ada yang mau kami bicarakan denganmu!”
Auliya    : “iya kamu kesini saja wadia kita mau bicara denganmu!”
Wadia   : ”iya tunggu saya kesitu!
Nona     : “ok!”
Wadia   : “apa yang kalian ingin bicarakan dengan ku?”
Alam      : “begini kami ingin kamu begabung dengan kami semua, apakah kamu setuju?”
Wadia   : “apakah kalian tidak malu bersahabat denganku yang miskin?”
Hartik    : “kami semua tidak malu kok bersahabat denganmu, ya kan teman-teman?”
Alam, Nona, Auliya : “iya kami tidak malu kok!”
Nona     : “apakah kamu setuju bergabung dengan kami?”
Wadia   : “iya saya setuju kok karena dari dulu saya ingin punya sahabat seperti kalian yang baik dan kompak !”
Hartik    : “sekarang kamu resmi menjadi anggota sahabat kami yang baru tanpa athira yang sombong itu horee !”
Wadia   : “terima kasih teman kalian memang teman terbaikku”
Alam, Nona, Auliya, Hartik : “iya sama-sama wadia”
Akhirnya Nona, Alam, Hartik, Auliya dan Wadia menjalin persahabatan yang erat dan mereka sekarang mengetahui arti persahabatan yang sesungguhnya tanpa athira yang sekarang tidak mempunyai sahabat karena kematrealistisanya.

Kamis, 15 Maret 2012

Diposting oleh Unknown di 23.22 0 komentar
Main Of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis comes from the word photon meaning light, and synthesis of the means set. So photosynthesis can be interpreted as a preparation of complex chemical compounds that require light energy. Energy source of natural light is the sun. This process can take place because of a certain pigment with materials CO2 and H2O. Sunlight consists of several spectra, each spectrum have different wavelengths, so the effect on the photosynthetic process is also different (Salisbury, 1995).
Photosynthesis is a complex biological process, this process uses solar energy and light that can be utilized by the chlorophyll contained in chloroplasts. Such as mitochondria, chloroplasts have an outer membrane and inner membrane. Membrane in the surrounding stroma containing an enzyme that dissolves in the membrane structures called thylakoid. The process of photosynthesis is affected by several factors such as water (H2O), CO2 concentration, temperature, leaf age, translocation of carbohydrates, and light. But the major factor that photosynthesis can take place is light, water, and carbon dioxide (Kimball, 1992).
Although photosynthesis may take place in various ways in various species, some of the characteristics are always the same. For example, the process always starts with the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll proteins called photosynthetic reaction center. In plants, protein is stored in organelles called chloroplasts, whereas in bacteria, these proteins are stored in the plasma membrane. A portion of the light energy gathered by chlorophylls is stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The remaining energy is used to separate electrons from a substance such as water. These electrons are used in a reaction that converts karbondioksia into organic compounds. In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, was conducted in a series of reactions called the Calvin cycle, but a series of different reactions are found in some bacteria, such as reverse Krebs cycle in Chlorobium. Many photosynthetic organisms have adaptations that concentrate or store carbon dioxide. This helps reduce wasteful process called photorespiration which can be spent most of the sugar produced during photosynthesis.
The first photosynthetic organisms likely evolved about 3,500 million years ago, early in the evolutionary history of life when all life forms on Earth are microorganisms and has a large amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Living things when it is most likely utilize hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide - not water - as a source of electrons. Cyanobacteria appeared later, around 3,000 million years ago, and drastically change when they start mengoksigenkan Earth's atmosphere at about 2,400 million years ago. This new atmosphere enables the evolution of complex life are like protists. In the end, no less than a billion years ago, one of the protists formed a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria and produce common ancestor of all plants and algae. Chloroplasts in modern plants are the descendants of this symbiotic cyanobacteria.

History Of Photosynthesis
Although there are still steps in photosynthesis are not understood, the general equation of photosynthesis has been known since the 1800s. In the early years of the 1600s, a physician and chemist, Jan van Helmont, a Flemish (now part of Belgium), conducting experiments to determine what factors led to the mass of plants growing from time to time. From his research, Helmont concluded that plants grow only because of the mass of water. However, in 1727, English botanist, Stephen Hales hypothesize that there must be other factors that play a role other than water. He suggested that some plant food derived from the atmosphere and light that are involved in the certain process. On wasn’t known that the air contains elements of different gases.
In 1771, Joseph Priestley, a chemist and a British minister, discovered that when he covered a burning candle with a jar upside down, the flame will die before the candle was burned. He later found out when he put a mouse in a jar upside down with wax, the rat will die of suffocation. From the second experiment, Priestley concluded that the flame has been "damaged" air and causing the death of mice. He then showed that the air that has been "destroyed" by the candle can be "restored" by plant. He  also showed that mice can be kept alive in jars closed so long as there are the plants.
In 1778, Jan Ingenhousz, physician to the Austrian, repeated Priestley's experiments. He showed that the effect of sunlight on the plant that can "restore" air "broken". He also found that plants also 'contaminate the air' in the dark so that he then suggested that the plants are removed from the house at night to prevent the possibility of poisoning the inhabitants.
Finally in 1782, Jean Senebier, a French pastor, showed that the air is "restored" and "destroy" it is the carbon dioxide absorbed by plants in photosynthesis.] Soon afterwards, Theodore de Saussure was able to show the relationship between hypotheses by Stephen Hale experiments "recovery" of air. He found that increasing plant mass is not only due to absorption of carbon dioxide, but also the incorporation of water. Through this series of experiments the experts finally succeeded in describing the general equation of photosynthesis that produces food (such as glucose).
Cornelis Van Niel produce important discoveries that explain the chemical process of photosynthesis. By studying purple sulfur bacteria and green bacteria, he became the first scientist to showing that photosynthesis is a redox reaction that depends on the light, in which hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide.
Robert Emerson discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using light with a wavelength that is different. With only red light, the light reactions can be suppressed. When the blue and red light are combined, the result becomes more. Thus, there are two protosystem, which absorbs up to a wavelength of 600 nm, the other to 700 nm. The first is known as PSII, which both PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll a, chlorophyll PAII containing mainly chlorophyll a and b, among other pigments. These include fikobilin, which is a red and blue pigments in red algae and blue, and brown algae and fukoksantol for diatoms. This process is most prolific when kuantanya balanced absorption for PSII and PSI, ensuring that the energy input from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII, which in turn drive the photosynthesis.
Robert Hill thought that a complex reaction consisting of an intermediary to kitokrom b6 (now plastokinon), the other from kitokrom f to a stage in the mechanism of carbohydrate income. All were connected by plastokinon, which require energy to reduce kitokrom f because it is a good reductant. Further experiments proved that the oxygen evolved in photosynthesis of green plants by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated chloroplasts release oxygen when memperleh unnatural reducing agents like iron oxalate, ferricyanide or benzokinon having previously illuminated by light. Hill reaction is as follows:
2 H2O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) 2 AH2 + O2
where A is the electron acceptor. Thus, in light, electron acceptor and reduced oxygen to grow.
Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen used radioactive isotopes to show that the oxygen released in photosynthesis comes from water.
Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson, along with James Bassham, describing the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. Carbon reduction cycle is now known as the Calvin cycle, which ignore the contribution by Bassham and Benson. Many scientists refer to this cycle as the Calvin-Benson Cycle, Benson-Calvin, and some even call it the Calvin-Benson cycle-Bassham (or CBB).
Nobel Prize-winning scientist, Rudolph A. Marcus, managed to find the functions and benefits of the electron transport chain.
Otto Heinrich Warburg and Dean Burk found the I-quantum photosynthetic reaction that splits the CO2, activated by respiration.
Louis N.M. And Jan Amesz Duysens found that chlorophyll a absorbs the light, oxidize kitokrom f, chlorophyll a (and other pigments) will absorb more light, but will reduce kitokrom same that have been oxidized, indicating that there were two light reactions in a series.






Devices Of Photosynthesis
*      Pigment
The process of photosynthesis can not take place in every cell, but only in cells that contain the photosynthetic pigments. Cells that do not have photosynthetic pigments are not able to perform photosynthesis. On Jan Ingenhousz experiment, it is known that light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis in plants. This can occur due to differences in the energy generated by each of the light spectrum. In addition to these energy differences, another factor that made ​​the difference is the ability of leaves to absorb light of different spectral range is. Differences in leaf ability to absorb different light spectra are attributed to differences in the type of pigment contained in the leaf tissue.
Mesophyll in the leaves are composed of spongy tissue and fence tissue. on both networks, there are a chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll. This pigment is one of the photosynthetic pigment that plays an important role in absorbing solar energy.
*   Chloroplast
Chloroplasts were present in all green plant parts, including stems and immature fruit. Inside the chloroplasts are chlorophyll pigments that play a role in the process of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts have a shape like a disc with a space called the stroma. Stroma is wrapped by two membrane layers. Thylakoid membrane is called the stroma, in which there are spaces between the membrane called lokuli. In the stroma also contained lamela-lamela the piles to form grana (granum collection). Granum itself consists of the thylakoid membrane is the site of light reactions and the thylakoid space is the space between the thylakoid membrane. When a granum is cut it will be found some components such as protein, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, karetonoid, and lipids. Overall, the stroma contains proteins, enzymes, DNA, RNA, sugar phosphates, ribosomes, vitamins, and metal ions such as manganese (Mn), iron (Fe) or copper (Cu). Photosynthetic pigments found on thylakoid membranes. Meanwhile, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy takes place in the thylakoid with the end product of glucose formed in the stroma. Chlorophyll itself is only part of the device in photosynthesis, known as photosystem.
*   Photosystem
Photosystem is a unit that can capture sunlight energy consisting of chlorophyll a, the complex antenna, and an electron acceptor. In the chloroplast, there are several kinds of chlorophyll and other pigments, such as chlorophyll a is colored light green, dark green chlorophyll b, and carotenoids are yellow to orange. Pigments are clustered in the thylakoid membrane and form the pigment that plays an important role in photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll a is in part a reaction center. Chlorophyll was instrumental in delivering a high-energy electrons to the primary electron acceptor. These electrons are then entered into the system of electrons cycle. Electrons are released chlorophyll a has a higher energy because the energy gain of the light emanating from the pigment molecules, known as the antenna complex.
Photosystem itself can be divided into two, namely photosystem I and photosystem II. In the photosystem I is the absorption of light energy by chlorophyll a, which is sensitive to light with a wavelength of 700 nm to chlorophyll a called P700. The energy transferred from the P700 antenna complex. In the photosystem II light energy absorption by chlorophyll a, which is sensitive to wavelengths of 680 nm, so-called P680. Oxidized P680 which is a stronger oxidizing agent than the P700. With a redox potential greater, will be enough negative electrons to gain electrons from water molecules.
*   Membranes and organelles of photosynthesis
Proteins that collect light for photosynthesis comes with the cell membrane. The simplest way found in bacteria, which are proteins stored in plasma mebran. However, these membranes can be folded tightly into cylindrical sheets called thylakoids, or collected into vesicles called intrakitoplasma membrane. These structures can fill most of the interior of the cell, making the membrane that has a large surface area and thus increase the amount of light can be absorbed by the bacteria.
On plants and algae, photosynthesis occurs in organelles called chloroplasts. One plant cells usually have about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. Chloroplasts is covered by a membrane. The membrane is composed of inner membrane phospholipids, outer membrane phospholipids, and the membrane between the two membranes. There is fluid in the membrane called the stroma. Stroma containing stacks (grana) thylakoids, which is the venue for the photosynthesis. Thylakoid flat disc-shaped, covered by a membrane with the lumen or the thylakoid space in it. The site of photosynthesis is the thylakoid membrane, which contains a complex integral membrane and peripheral membrane complexes, including membrane that absorbs light energy, which form the photosystem.
Plants absorb light using the pigment chlorophyll, which is the reason why most plants have green color. In addition to chlorophyll, plants also use pigments carotene and xantofil are like. Algae also use chlorophyll, but has a variety of other pigments, for example fikosianin, carotene, and xantofil on green algae, red algae fikoeritrin at (Rhodophyta) and brown algae and fukoksantin the diatom that produces a variety of colors as well.
These pigments found in plants and algae in special antenna proteins. At these protein pigments all are working together on a regular basis. Such proteins are called light harvesting complexes.
Although all cells in the green at the plant have chloroplasts, most of the energy absorbed in the leaves. Cells on the leaf tissue, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 to 800,000 chloroplasts per square millimeter on the leaves. Sergam leaf surface is covered by a waterproof waxy cuticle that protects the leaf from excessive evaporation and reduces the absorption of blue or ultraviolet light to reduce heating. The epidermal layer of translucent allowing light to enter through the palisade mesophyll cells where most photosynthesis takes place.
Process Of Photosynthesis
In plants, the main organ of photosynthesis is the site of the leaf. But in general, all cells that have the potential to establish a chloroplast reactions. At the site of the photosynthetic organelle is, exactly in the stroma. Of photosynthesis (called fotosintat) are usually sent to nearby tissues first.
Photosynthesis organisms were autotrophs, which means that they save energy, they are able to synthesize food directly carbon dioxide, water, and using energy from light. They grow them as part of their potential energy. However, not all organisms use light as an energy source to carry out photosynthesis, since fotoheterotrof using organic compounds, not carbon dioxide, as an energy source.  In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis produces oxygen. Oxygen is called photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between the photosynthetic oxygen in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, in general the process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are several types of bacteria that perform photosynthesis anoksigen, which absorb carbon dioxide but does not produce oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is converted into sugar in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is a redox reaction, so photosynthesis requires a source of energy for this process, and the electrons needed to convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, which a reduction reaction. In general, photosynthesis is the reverse of cellular respiration, where glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide, water, and produce chemical energy. However, two processes that take place through a series of different chemical reactions and in different cell compartments.
The general equation for photosynthesis is as follows:
CO2 + 2n + 2n DH2 photon 2 (CH 2 O) n + 2n DO
Carbon dioxide + electron donor + light energy carbohydrate + oxidized electron donor
Oxygen on photosynthesis and water is the electron donor, because the hydrolysis releasing oxygen, the equation for this process are:
CO2 + 2n H2O + photons 4N 2 (CH 2 O) n + 2n + 2n H2O O2
carbon dioxide + water + light energy carbohydrate + oxygen + water
Often 2n water molecules were canceled on both sides, resulting in:
2n 2n H2O + CO2 + photons 2 (CH 2 O) n + 2n O2
carbon dioxide + water + light energy carbohydrate + oxygen
Other processes replace other compounds (As arsenit) with water-supply on the role of the electron; microbe uses sunlight to oxidize arsenit into arsenate:
The equation for the reaction is as follows:
CO2 + (AsO33-) + photons (AsO43-) + CO
arsenit + carbon dioxide + light energy + carbon monoxide arsenate (used to make other compounds in the next reaction)
Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, the light reactions or light reactions absorbs light energy and use it to produce energy-storing molecule ATP and NADPH. In the second stage, the dark reactions use these products to absorb and reduce carbon dioxide.
Most of the organisms that do. Photosynthesis to produce oxygen using visible light to do so, although at least three uses of infrared radiation.


 

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